Security and Land Power Journal
type: channel
description: ISSN: 2955-8018 (Print) ISSN: 2810-899X (Online) The Security and Land Power Journal, founded in 2022, publishes research articles - unpublished and original - related to Security, Defense, and the Military Profession, which are reviewed by external peers who have previously published similar research. Through the double-blind system, the evaluations are carried out anonymously and focus on the quality and validity of the arguments expressed in the articles. The journal has two sections: (1) Main Section (focused on the four areas of study of CEEEP or a central theme selected for an edition of the journal), and (2) Miscellaneous (focused on additional content -such as comments and book review- or on topics related to Security and Defense in case the Main Section has focused on a different topic). The periodicity of the Security and Land Power Journal is quarterly, being published - both in its physical format and in its digital version- during the first month of the corresponding period. In this sense, the first period of publication of the journal runs from January to March, the second from April to June, the third from July to September, and the fourth from October to December. If you wish to publish in the Security and Land Power Journal, review our calls, the editorial process, and the rules for authors.
publisher: Centro de Estudios Estratégicos del Ejército del Perú
language: en
publication name: Security and Land Power Journal
issn: 2955-8018
items: Military Leadership as a Guarantor of Discipline, Cohesion, and Institutional Integrity in the Peruvian Army
items: Peruvian Foreign Policy: Diplomatic-Strategic Stewardship Toward Autonomy in the Context of Great Power Competition
items: Analysis of the Conflict in Syria Prior to the Fall of Bashar al-Assad and Potential Geopolitical Scenarios
items: Strategic Lessons from Contemporary Geopolitical Conflicts for Peru’s Security and Defense: Multidomain Operations, Strategic Autonomy, and National Resilience
items: From the Field to Command: Peru’s Strategic Evolution in Peacekeeping Missions within the Global Geopolitical Landscape
items: The Economic Power of Transnational Organized Crime in Putumayo
items: Geocriminality as a Threat to the Security and Sovereignty of States
items: Hybrid Threats and Cognitive Warfare: The Strategic Vulnerability of the Peruvian State
items: Beyond Management: Strategic Thinking as a Ethic of Conduct in Military
items: Special Forces and Their Role in Information Operations
items: Implementation of Process-Based Management and Its Relationship with Service Quality in Major Service Units of the Peruvian Army
items: Military Philosophy and the Moral Power of the Army as Pillars of Institutional Reengineering
items: Operations Chavín de Huántar and Cerco: Milestones of Military's Victory against Terrorism
items: Bilateral Military Planning Model for Security Cooperation between Peru and the United States
items: Citizenship in Peru as a Public Issue and Multisectoral National Policy: Impact on National Security and Defense
items: Corío and the Geopolitical Chessboard of the South Pacific in Scenarios of Systemic Competition and Strategic Sovereignty
items: Analysis of the Armed Forces' Participation in Peru's Sustainable Development
items: Three Years of War in Ukraine and the Changing Character of Warfare
items: 21st Century Geopolitics and Peru in the New World Order
items: Informality, Corruption and Impunity as Structural Threats to Peru's National Security
items: Mining, National Security and Governance: Strategic Threats and Risks in the Southern Peruvian Mining Corridor
items: The Role of Global Powers in the Palestinian-Israeli Armed Conflict
items: Exo-criminality of risk: An emerging challenge to the security of states and democratic stability
items: Towards the conquest of space: Challenges and perspectives of the Argentine Aerospace Police
items: Generative Artificial Intelligence: A Prospective Analysis of its Implications for Security and Defense
items: Geopolitical Prospects in Syria After the Fall of Bashar al-Assad
items: La Rinconada: Zone of Threats and Challenges to National Security
items: The Armed Forces in the control of internal order and in support of the Peruvian National Police for its reestablishment
items: Ideological Radicalization, Organized Crime and National Security: The Intervention of the Armed Forces
items: Evolution of Peruvian National Security and Defense in Interaction with the United States

Military Leadership as a Guarantor of Discipline, Cohesion, and Institutional Integrity in the Peruvian Army
type: item
description: This article aims to analyze military leadership as an essential element for preserving discipline, strengthening cohesion, and ensuring the institutional integrity of the Peruvian Army (EP). To this end, a qualitative methodology with a hermeneutic and documentary approach was employed, based on the analysis of doctrinal, historical, and bibliographic sources related to the military profession, leadership, and the exercise of command. The study demonstrates that the effectiveness of a military organization depends not exclusively on its structure, material resources, or technological capabilities, but fundamentally on the legitimacy of leadership to transform formal authority into conscious commitment, strengthen discipline, consolidate esprit de corps, and preserve the institution’s moral power. It also shows that the challenges inherent in the contemporary strategic environment increase the need for commanders with moral authority, adaptability, and a strong ethical foundation. As its main contribution, the study proposes understanding military leadership not only as a competence inherent to the exercise of command, but also as an ongoing process of developing personnel, strengthening moral power, and building institutional capacity, thereby ensuring doctrinal continuity and the fundamental values of the EP.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: military leadership
  topic: keywords
subject: discipline
  topic: keywords
subject: institutional cohesion
  topic: keywords
subject: legitimate authority
  topic: keywords
subject: military spirit
  topic: keywords
subject: Peruvian Army
  topic: keywords
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 429
ending page: 473
doi: 10.56221/hrv23420

Peruvian Foreign Policy: Diplomatic-Strategic Stewardship Toward Autonomy in the Context of Great Power Competition
type: item
description: This essay offers theoretical and practical contributions to the understanding and reflection on the complementarity of diplomacy and defense as central instruments for designing an effective foreign policy strategy for a small power such as Peru in the context of great power competition. Based on a historical review of cases and authors, as well as a comparative exploration of contemporary international politics, and with the added value of being grounded in and conceived from the perspective of the national context, three key components of a foreign policy capable of ensuring a sufficient margin of maneuver are identified: diplomatic balancing, diplomatic coalition-building, and deterrence by denial. The essay suggests that Peru, as a small power aspiring to become an emerging middle power, is in a position to pursue an autonomous foreign policy strategy, with clear, coordinated, and articulated diplomatic-strategic stewardship that ensures an adequate margin for action in the external arena and enables the country to better defend the permanent interests of the Peruvian state.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: geopolitics
  topic: keywords
subject: great power competition
  topic: keywords
subject: foreign policy
  topic: keywords
subject: national interest
  topic: keywords
subject: diplomacy
  topic: keywords
subject: defense
  topic: keywords
subject: security
  topic: keywords
subject: deterrence by denial
  topic: keywords
creator: Sergio Aníbal Zapata Huamán
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 341
ending page: 426
doi: 10.56221/wknp9w38

Analysis of the Conflict in Syria Prior to the Fall of Bashar al-Assad and Potential Geopolitical Scenarios
type: item
description: This article analyzes the Syrian conflict from the outbreak of the 2011 protests through a scenario involving the fall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime in December 2024 and the subsequent establishment of a transitional government led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). It examines the domestic origins of the uprising, characterized by regime authoritarianism, corruption, socioeconomic discontent, and the influence of the Arab Spring, as well as the transformation of the uprising into a civil war with sectarian dimensions. The study examines the principal domestic actors—including the regime, the armed forces, the armed opposition, and Islamist groups—as well as external actors, including Russia, China, Iran, the United States (U.S.), the European Union (EU), Türkiye, the Gulf petro-monarchies, Israel, the United Nations (UN), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the League of Arab States (Arab League), highlighting their strategic, military, and energy-related interests. Within this framework, the article demonstrates how Syria became a theater of geopolitical competition and proxy warfare, in which regional and global rivalries contributed to prolonging and radicalizing the conflict. Finally, it outlines potential geopolitical scenarios, including territorial fragmentation, the consolidation of sectarian fault lines, and the challenges involved in building an inclusive and sovereign political project in a country whose reconstruction remains constrained by the interference of external powers.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Syria
  topic: keywords
subject: Bashar al-Assad
  topic: keywords
subject: civil war
  topic: keywords
subject: external actors
  topic: keywords
subject: geopolitics
  topic: keywords
subject: geopolitical scenarios
  topic: keywords
creator: Oswal Sigüeñas Alvarado
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 285
ending page: 340
doi: 10.56221/xpk6dm77

Strategic Lessons from Contemporary Geopolitical Conflicts for Peru’s Security and Defense: Multidomain Operations, Strategic Autonomy, and National Resilience
type: item
description: This article analyzes the strategic lessons derived from contemporary geopolitical conflicts and their implications for Peru’s security and defense system. It examines three critical scenarios: the Russia-Ukraine conflict, which has become a contemporary reference for attritional warfare and multidomain operations; the asymmetric conflict between Iran and Israel, in the context of United States (U.S.) involvement, as a model of strategic resistance through proxy warfare; and the Venezuela-U.S. scenario as an expression of great-power competition in Latin America. The findings show that Peru faces significant indirect strategic exposure as the international order is reshaped into a multipolar system, together with accumulated deficits in cyber defense, the absence of integrated multidomain capabilities, critical infrastructure vulnerabilities, external technological dependence, and limited national resilience. Against this backdrop, Peru needs to move from a reactive and fragmented model toward a comprehensive multidomain defense approach, strengthening strategic autonomy through sustained investment in critical capabilities, diversification of partnerships, development of a national defense industry, and consolidation of national resilience as a fundamental pillar of state security.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: multidomain operations
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic autonomy
  topic: keywords
subject: national resilience
  topic: keywords
subject: hybrid warfare
  topic: keywords
subject: security and defense of Peru
  topic: keywords
subject: geopolitical competition
  topic: keywords
creator: Jhonny León Rabanal
creator: Joe Paul Mendoza del Águila
creator: Carlos Omar Ruiz Bardales
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 201
ending page: 284
doi: 10.56221/tj8hjq79

From the Field to Command: Peru’s Strategic Evolution in Peacekeeping Missions within the Global Geopolitical Landscape
type: item
description: This article examines the evolution of the Peruvian Armed Forces (FF. AA.) in United Nations (UN) Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs), highlighting their transition from an initially tactical role in the field, carried out by contingents and military observers, to senior command and strategic planning positions in volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) operational environments. The study seeks to assess the geopolitical impact and international projection of the Peruvian State through its Armed Forces. The analysis covers nearly seven decades of uninterrupted deployment, during which military personnel have demonstrated professionalism, sound doctrine, extensive knowledge, and interoperability in each of their assignments, helping to build a reputation for reliability within the international community. This strategic maturity is reflected in the assignment of leadership positions, particularly the appointment of a Chief of Staff (Deputy Sector Commander) in the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA). Other notable achievements include the presence of the Engineering Company in Bouar, the high level of female participation, and the availability of a Rapid Reaction Force (QRF) for the Department of Peace Operations (DPO).
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: military leadership
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic evolution
  topic: keywords
subject: peacekeeping operations
  topic: keywords
subject: MINUSCA
  topic: keywords
creator: Edgar Lescano Flores
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 169
ending page: 198
doi: 10.56221/ah0net72

The Economic Power of Transnational Organized Crime in Putumayo
type: item
description: This article examines how illicit economies and cross-border mobility enable armed organizations to exercise economic power and forms of social regulation in the Putumayo basin. The problem is not merely a matter of a supposed “absence of the State”: it stems from a combination of river corridors that are difficult to control, the territorial concentration of coca cultivation, informal markets, persistent gaps in public services, and State responses fragmented by borders and institutional jurisdictions. Through a qualitative and triangulated review of academic literature, early warning reports, official statistics, regulations, technical reports, and journalistic investigations, the article distinguishes between verified facts in the Putumayo, documented regional connections, and hypotheses that still require judicial investigation. The evidence confirms the conflict between the Carolina Ramírez Front and the Border Commandos, as well as controls over mobility, communications, and trade on the Colombian side. However, it does not demonstrate that gold has replaced cocaine as Putumayo’s primary illicit economy, nor that the Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC) or the Comando Vermelho directly control local mining operations. It is argued that the strategic risk stems from five mechanisms: jurisdictional arbitrage, illicit rents, criminal governance, unequal State weakness, and vulnerability to co-optation. The proposed response links each mechanism to verifiable measures and indicators, prioritizing permanent river patrols, financial investigations, traceability, public services, legal alternatives for young people, and institutional integrity.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: transnational organized crime
  topic: keywords
subject: Putumayo
  topic: keywords
subject: illicit economies
  topic: keywords
subject: criminal governance
  topic: keywords
subject: drug trafficking
  topic: keywords
subject: illegal mining
  topic: keywords
subject: State security
  topic: keywords
creator: Cecil Harold Suarez Villiers
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 123
ending page: 168
doi: 10.56221/cxye5460

Geocriminality as a Threat to the Security and Sovereignty of States
type: item
description: The current situation of “permacrisis,” understood as a prolonged period of instability and insecurity, has increased the vulnerability of countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Combined with institutional weakness, porous borders, and high levels of corruption, it has made crime the main challenge to the security and sovereignty of states, with a consequent impact on socioeconomic development. In Peru, transnational crime is linked to most of the identified national security threats, turning border regions into geostrategic spaces for criminal activity and highlighting the need to rethink national border-security policy, with clearly defined institutional responsibilities and a systemic, regionally cooperative approach. In this context, the adaptability of transnational crime, its efforts to maintain territorial control, and its links to global illicit markets have turned it into a geopolitical instrument known as geocriminality, used both by criminal organizations and by certain states seeking to undermine countries with opposing interests, thereby weakening their security, governance, and political stability.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: geocriminality
  topic: keywords
subject: criminal governance
  topic: keywords
subject: cockroach effect
  topic: keywords
subject: criminal value chain
  topic: keywords
creator: Ronald Ivan Gonzales Begazo
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-30
publication date: 2026-08-30
starting page: 95
ending page: 122
doi: 10.56221/7yaf7x55

Hybrid Threats and Cognitive Warfare: The Strategic Vulnerability of the Peruvian State
type: item
description: This article analyzes the implications of hybrid threats and cognitive warfare for Peru's National Security, with the aim of identifying the main strategic vulnerabilities affecting the stability, governance, and state leadership capacity. The research employed a qualitative, analytical, and documentary approach based on a review of specialized literature and doctrine on hybrid threats, cognitive warfare, National Security, and strategy. The analysis confirms that contemporary transformations in conflict do not alter its political nature, but rather the instruments used to influence the will, legitimacy, and capacity of States to act. In the Peruvian case, the convergence of social unrest, illicit economies, disinformation, narrative manipulation, impacts on strategic infrastructure and corridors, and institutional weaknesses creates a scenario of high strategic vulnerability for National Security. As its main contribution, the study proposes an analytical framework that integrates political, social, economic, territorial, informational, and cognitive variables to support the interpretation of contemporary conflict scenarios from a systemic perspective. The study concludes that strengthening strategic anticipation, intelligence, interinstitutional interoperability, the protection of infrastructure and essential functions, as well as cognitive resilience, is fundamental to increasing the State's adaptive capacity in hybrid scenarios and preserving democratic governance.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: hybrid threats
  topic: keywords
subject: cognitive warfare
  topic: keywords
subject: national security
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic vulnerability
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic anticipation
  topic: keywords
subject: cognitive resilience
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic leadership
  topic: keywords
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-08-31
publication date: 2026-08-31
starting page: 23
ending page: 60
doi: 10.56221/r81epg89

Beyond Management: Strategic Thinking as a Ethic of Conduct in Military
type: item
description: Strategic thinking in defense institutions transcends administrative planning and constitutes an ethical responsibility of institutional leadership. A systemic analysis of organizational functioning reveals that the structural distortions affecting the state—such as decision-making fragmentation, the primacy of short-term considerations immediate situation, and the breakdown of coherence between ends and means—do not originate solely in technical or regulatory deficiencies, but rather stem from a progressive weakening of strategic reasoning understood as an effective leadership practice. In this context, this article examines how the so-called "culture of urgency," together with certain manifestations of state informality, reduces the Armed Forces capacity to project their actions over long-term time horizons, shifts leadership toward predominantly administrative functions, and turns professional dissent into a practice perceived as inconvenient within the organization. Rather than proposing immediate solutions, the study suggests reaffirming strategic thinking as a central analytical category, aimed at strengthening the institutional capacity to interpret strategic time and preventing day-to-day management from becoming the limit of organizational vision.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: strategic thinking
  topic: keywords
subject: institutional leadership
  topic: keywords
subject: organizational culture
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic leadership
  topic: keywords
subject: defense institutions
  topic: keywords
creator: Domingo Ricardo Bustamante Zúñiga
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 419
ending page: 430

Special Forces and Their Role in Information Operations
type: item
description: This article examines the strategic and tactical role of Special Forces (SF) within the framework of Information Operations (IO). It analyzes how these highly trained units not only execute specialized operations but also shape the adversary's information environment. Through covert actions, intelligence activities, and narrative management, the SF help shape the adversary's perceptions and enhance the operational advantage. The analysis highlights the importance of integrating IO with military and political objectives, in accordance with ethical and legal principles. In contemporary scenarios, where information constitutes a decisive strategic resource, SF are establishing themselves as key actors in shaping the strategic environment and protecting national capabilities.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: information operations
  topic: keywords
subject: special forces
  topic: keywords
subject: information warfare
  topic: keywords
subject: psychological operations
  topic: keywords
subject: operational environment
  topic: keywords
creator: Augusto Álvarez Torres
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 373
ending page: 396

Implementation of Process-Based Management and Its Relationship with Service Quality in Major Service Units of the Peruvian Army
type: item
description: In Peru, the National Policy for the Modernization of Public Management (PNMGP) encourages state entities to provide efficient, effective, and citizen-oriented services through the adoption of a process management approach. Within this framework, the Peruvian Army, as a state institution, participates in this modernization process. However, the Major Service Units (GUS) maintain a traditional functional organizational structure that limits the efficiency and timeliness of their service delivery. Given this problem, the study aimed to determine the relationship between the implementation of process management and service quality in the GUS's of the Peruvian Army. The research adopted a quantitative approach with a correlational scope and cross-sectional design and used a semi-structured questionnaire for data collection, which was processed and analyzed using statistical software SPSS. The results show a direct, positive, and statistically significant relationship (ρ = 0.528; p < 0.05) between process management and service quality, confirming the hypothesis and reinforcing the methodological consistency of the study.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: process-based management
  topic: keywords
subject: service quality
  topic: keywords
subject: institutional modernization
  topic: keywords
subject: military organization
  topic: keywords
subject: defense sector
  topic: keywords
creator: Roberto Carlos Alonso Tapia
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-21
publication date: 2026-04-21
starting page: 331
ending page: 350
doi: 10.56221/602nae09

Military Philosophy and the Moral Power of the Army as Pillars of Institutional Reengineering
type: item
description: The institutional reengineering of the Peruvian Army (EP) is not limited to technological modernization or the incorporation of new operational capabilities; it requires, above all, a cultural and doctrinal transformation that places military identity, military philosophy, and moral power at the center as the structural pillars of change. In this context, this article aims to analyze the foundations that underpin institutional identity and demonstrate that these constitute the basis upon which a modern, cohesive, and effective Army must be built. To this end, a qualitative methodology with a hermeneutic approach is adopted, grounded in the critical analysis of doctrinal, historical, and philosophical sources, complemented by specialized literature on military cohesion and organizational culture. Based on this analytical framework, it is argued that institutional strength does not lie exclusively in material resources, but in the balanced articulation between tradition and modernity, leadership and mystique, discipline and moral conviction. Consequently, institutional reengineering must be conceived as a comprehensive process aimed at preserving the historical essence of the EP, strengthening values such as self-sacrifice, cohesion, and leadership, and coherently articulating doctrine, organizational culture, and collective morale within a single strategic horizon. Only in this way will it be possible to consolidate a legitimate, effective institution fully committed to the defense of sovereignty, peace, and national unity.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: military philosophy
  topic: keywords
subject: moral power
  topic: keywords
subject: military identity
  topic: keywords
subject: institutional reengineering
  topic: keywords
subject: military organizational culture
  topic: keywords
subject: military leadership
  topic: keywords
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 273
ending page: 300

Operations Chavín de Huántar and Cerco: Milestones of Military's Victory against Terrorism
type: item
description: This article analyzes the strategic significance of neutralizing the military capabilities of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) and the Communist Party of Peru–Shining Path (PCP-SL), an event that consolidated the Peruvian state's military victory over terrorism and brought an end to the armed phase on a national scale. It is argued that, although the terrorist phenomenon was defeated militarily, the conflict did not end but gave way to a phase of unconventional confrontation, characterized by political, ideological, legal, cultural, and narrative disputes driven by ideological remnants and affiliated networks. The research adopts a qualitative strategic-analytical approach, grounded in the historical study of Operations "Chavín de Huántar" (1997) and "Cerco" (1999), as well as in the strategic-doctrinal analysis of the subsequent period, complemented by the authors' operational experience. The results confirm that the defeat of terrorism was decisive on the military front, as it dismantled its political-military leadership and irreversibly degraded its capacity for strategic action. However, the analysis shows that the absence of a comprehensive post-conflict strategy facilitated the ideological reorganization of radicalism, its convergence with illicit economies, and the emergence of hybrid threats. It is concluded that military victory must be consolidated through a comprehensive state response aimed at strengthening institutions, historical memory, and national security.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: terrorism
  topic: keywords
subject: national security
  topic: keywords
subject: MRTA
  topic: keywords
subject: PCP-SL
  topic: keywords
subject: narrative warfare
  topic: keywords
subject: hybrid threats
  topic: keywords
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 211
ending page: 240

Bilateral Military Planning Model for Security Cooperation between Peru and the United States
type: item
description: Through a documentary analysis of existing agreements and applicable national and international regulatory frameworks, complemented by a specialized review of security cooperation, this study examines the complementarity of three instruments: the 1st Security Force Assistance Brigade (1st SFAB), the West Virginia National Guard (NGWV), and U.S. Army Special Forces (SF). The findings demonstrate that the historical fragmentation of cooperation efforts has constrained the consolidation of sustainable institutional capabilities. In response to this limitation, the study proposes a planning model that integrates the DOTMLPF-P framework with warfighting functions through five operational phases, thereby configuring a planning scheme applicable to the Peruvian Army's (EP) Plan de Transformación Institucional (PTI) (Institutional Transformation Plan) through 2034. Finally, the study argues that military cooperation must be aligned with national strategic priorities in order to prevent operational dependencies and strengthen the institutionalization of force development processes.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: security cooperation
  topic: keywords
subject: bilateral military planning
  topic: keywords
subject: military capability development
  topic: keywords
subject: transnational threats
  topic: keywords
creator: David Esteban Díaz Janampa
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 153
ending page: 208

Citizenship in Peru as a Public Issue and Multisectoral National Policy: Impact on National Security and Defense
type: item
description: This research article employs an analytical-propositional methodology to examine the exercise of citizenship in Peru as a public issue. The study identifies that limitations in civic practice negatively impact democratic governance, security, national defense, and social development. The concept is analyzed from philosophical and political perspectives, in which citizenship is understood as the full exercise of rights and the responsible fulfillment of duties grounded in social awareness. Based on empirical evidence, such as institutional distrust and educational gaps, the research formulates the problem in accordance with the methodology of the National Center for Strategic Planning (CEPLAN) and proposes the design of a Política Nacional Multisectoral (PNM) (Multisectoral National Policy) with a time horizon to 2035. The analysis concludes that strengthening civic capacities contributes to optimizing resource management in the field of security and to enhancing democratic performance. Additionally, the role of the Armed Forces (FF.AA.) is highlighted in the formation of civic values and principles that strengthen institutional resilience and promote sustainable state development.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: citizenship
  topic: keywords
subject: social awareness
  topic: keywords
subject: civic culture
  topic: keywords
subject: national security and defense
  topic: keywords
subject: multisectoral national policy
  topic: keywords
creator: Emilio Jesús Cam Albújar
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-17
publication date: 2026-04-17
starting page: 89
ending page: 152

Corío and the Geopolitical Chessboard of the South Pacific in Scenarios of Systemic Competition and Strategic Sovereignty
type: item
description: This article analyzes the Corío project as a geopolitical asset and critical infrastructure capable of redefining Peru's position in the South Pacific and strengthening its integration into global value chains. In this context, the objective is to examine, from a qualitative strategic perspective, the scenarios related to its financing, construction, and eventual operation, assessing their implications for the state's strategic autonomy, economic competitiveness, and the country's comprehensive security. Furthermore, it is argued that Corío transcends its port dimension and serves as an instrument for Peru's geopolitical integration into an international landscape characterized by systemic competition among powers, the securitization of logistics chains, and growing geoeconomic volatility. From this perspective, the study examines three prospective scenarios: (i) U.S. financing, conceived as a potential logistical counterweight to China's projection from Chancay; (ii) Chinese financing that would integrate the infrastructure into the Maritime Silk Road; and (iii) a diversified multipolar framework aimed at preserving strategic autonomy through balanced governance and the participation of the national business community. Methodologically, the research adopts a hermeneutic-prospective approach, grounded in the critical review of verifiable documentary sources and the analytical construction of scenarios. Consequently, the findings indicate that Corío's future will depend on the formulation of a comprehensive national strategy capable of articulating strategic infrastructure, economic diplomacy, legal security, logistical resilience, and territorial cohesion, as well as establishing institutional safeguards from the project's pre-operational phase.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: geopolitics
  topic: keywords
subject: critical infrastructure
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic autonomy
  topic: keywords
subject: global competition
  topic: keywords
subject: South Pacific
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic logistics
  topic: keywords
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2026-04-21
publication date: 2026-04-21
starting page: 23
ending page: 56
doi: 10.56221/zwh2cj41

Analysis of the Armed Forces' Participation in Peru's Sustainable Development
type: item
description: This article examines the participation of the Peruvian Armed Forces in the promotion of sustainable development from a multidimensional perspective. Through a documentary analysis, it studies the institutional contributions in the economic, social, environmental and political dimensions, within the framework of national security and defense. It is argued that the Armed Forces, in addition to their traditional role in the defense of sovereignty, have the capacity to actively intervene in development processes through multisectoral actions that strengthen governance, national resilience and territorial cohesion. In this context, the normative, institutional and operational mechanisms that allow them to articulate their actions with the strategic objectives of the State are identified. The study concludes that, with adequate planning and inter-institutional coordination, the Armed Forces can play a key role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially in vulnerable and hard-to-reach areas.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Armed Forces
  topic: keywords
subject: sustainable development
  topic: keywords
subject: security
  topic: keywords
subject: national defense
  topic: keywords
subject: multisectoral participation
  topic: keywords
subject: governance
  topic: keywords
creator: Roberto Carlos Alonso Tapia
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-02
publication date: 2025-08-02
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.86

Three Years of War in Ukraine and the Changing Character of Warfare
type: item
description: This article examines the transformations that the war in Ukraine has introduced into the character of contemporary armed conflict, especially since the massive use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), the development of emerging technologies, the decentralization of tactical leadership, and the need to mobilize the population as part of a whole-nation strategy. It also analyzes the impact of these innovations on military doctrine, command and NCO training, strategic logistics and preparedness for large-scale combat scenarios. Through a comparative and descriptive perspective, key lessons for institutional adaptation in the face of a constantly changing operational environment are identified.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: War in Ukraine
  topic: keywords
subject: Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS)
  topic: keywords
subject: decentralized leadership
  topic: keywords
subject: whole nation strategy
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic logistics
  topic: keywords
subject: doctrinal transformation
  topic: keywords
creator: Matthew Holbrook
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-11
publication date: 2025-08-11
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.85

21st Century Geopolitics and Peru in the New World Order
type: item
description: This article examines the contemporary meaning of geopolitics in the context of world reordering and Peru's position in the new power scenarios. Through an interpretative and strategic qualitative methodology, it analyzes specialized sources and comparative regional doctrines, with the aim of understanding the factors that influence the articulation of national power. The purpose is to contribute to the formulation of a national strategy that will allow Peru to face the challenges of the international environment with autonomy and long-term vision. It highlights the urgency of a modern geopolitical doctrine that integrates security, defense, development, education, productive infrastructure and strategic leadership. It also addresses transnational threats, regional dynamics in Latin America and the influence of global powers on the international system. The research proposes to reposition Peru as a geostrategic node in South America, combining logistical development, institutional strengthening, professionalization of the Armed Forces and an educational policy aligned with national interests. This analysis offers guidelines to build a prospective national geopolitical vision, multisectoral and coherent with the permanent interests of the State in a complex and competitive global environment.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Geopolítica
  topic: keywords
subject: seguridad y defensa nacional
  topic: keywords
subject: estrategia multisectorial
  topic: keywords
subject: soberanía estratégica
  topic: keywords
subject: nuevo orden mundial
  topic: keywords
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-02
publication date: 2025-08-02
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.84

Informality, Corruption and Impunity as Structural Threats to Peru's National Security
type: item
description: This study analyzes how informality, corruption and impunity, deeply rooted in Peru's political and social culture, constitute structural threats that undermine national security, weaken democratic institutions and put the country's development at risk. Through a qualitative approach and the critical analysis of specialized literature, official sources and journalistic reports, we identify the systemic interconnections between these three corrosive forces and their cross-cutting impact on the economy, governance, citizen cohesion and the national security and defense system. It is argued that these dynamics favor the expansion of illegal economies, weaken the citizen's link with the State and erode democratic sustainability. The main objective is to contribute to the formulation of multisectoral reforms that restore and strengthen the constitutional order, promote a culture of legality and consolidate a national project based on shared civic values and inalienable principles. It also highlights the role of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces) as institutions that shape values, discipline and national cohesion in the face of a society affected by state fragmentation and the weakening of civic commitment.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Informality
  topic: keywords
subject: corruption
  topic: keywords
subject: impunity
  topic: keywords
subject: national security
  topic: keywords
subject: governance
  topic: keywords
subject: citizenship
  topic: keywords
subject: institutional reform
  topic: keywords
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
creator: Diana Selene Rosell Claudet
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-02
publication date: 2025-08-02
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.83

Mining, National Security and Governance: Strategic Threats and Risks in the Southern Peruvian Mining Corridor
type: item
description: This article analyzes the threats and risks faced by Peru due to the expansion of illegal mining in the Southern Mining Corridor, evaluating its impact on national security, internal order and democratic governance. Its objective is to identify, evaluate and propose comprehensive alternatives to this complex phenomenon, which intertwines criminal economics, ideological radicalism, regulatory gaps and territorial capture by criminal organizations. The purpose is to contribute to the design of a National Mining Security Strategy aimed at protecting the strategic interests of the State and promoting sustainable, legal and sovereign development. The methodology used combines the review of official documents, specialized studies, journalistic reports and experiences in areas of high conflict, where recurrent patterns of institutional capture and collapse of the rule of law are evident. Based on this analysis, viable proposals are presented from an articulated approach to security, legality and national development.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: National security
  topic: keywords
subject: illegal mining
  topic: keywords
subject: governance
  topic: keywords
subject: organized crime
  topic: keywords
subject: internal order
  topic: keywords
subject: Southern Mining Corridor
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic development
  topic: keywords
creator: Miguel Angel Gonzales Bojórquez
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
creator: Diana Selene Rosell Claudet
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-02
publication date: 2025-08-02
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.82

The Role of Global Powers in the Palestinian-Israeli Armed Conflict
type: item
description: The decisions adopted by international actors have had a determining influence on the configuration and persistence of various armed conflicts. In this context, this article analyzes the role played by the main global powers in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, with emphasis on their geostrategic, economic and diplomatic interests. The study employs a systematic literature review, based on official sources and specialized literature. The findings show that the United States (US), Russia and China have implemented policies aimed at defending their own interests, which, far from contributing to a peaceful solution, have intensified and prolonged the confrontation. This dynamic highlights the dissonance between the diplomatic discourse of the powers and their actions on the ground, which hinders the achievement of a lasting peace in the Middle East region.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Palestine
  topic: keywords
subject: Israel
  topic: keywords
subject: U.S.
  topic: keywords
subject: international powers
  topic: keywords
subject: geopolitical influence
  topic: keywords
subject: foreign intervention
  topic: keywords
subject: armed conflict
  topic: keywords
creator: Jury Carla Medina Uribe
creator: Hubert Luque Huamani Chirinos
creator: Jeremy Montalban Medina
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-02
publication date: 2025-08-02
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i2.81

Exo-criminality of risk: An emerging challenge to the security of states and democratic stability
type: item
description: This study examines the emergence of Exo-Criminality of Risk (ECR) as a criminal variant that differs from traditional organized crime by originating from external factors, such as migratory dynamics, social crises and other exogenous pressures, rather than from strategic planning by a criminal leadership. The research highlights that the ECR is characterized by a remarkable adaptability and operational flexibility, allowing its rapid integration into diverse local criminal ecosystems and modifying conventional patterns of criminal affiliation. Based on rigorous fieldwork, ethnographic analysis and academic review, the paper identifies two models of criminal expansion: strategic Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) and ECR, the latter driven by external social and opportunity factors. It also emphasizes the need to adapt state responses through police and judicial strategies and internationally coordinated public policies to effectively counter the threat posed by this emerging phenomenon.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: RCE
  topic: keywords
subject: organized crime
  topic: keywords
subject: transnationalization
  topic: keywords
subject: criminal adaptability
  topic: keywords
subject: state security
  topic: keywords
subject: international cooperation
  topic: keywords
creator: Pablo Zeballos
creator: Douglas Farah
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-29
publication date: 2025-04-29
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.80

Towards the conquest of space: Challenges and perspectives of the Argentine Aerospace Police
type: item
description: The article analyzes Argentine aerospace policy, examining its evolution and challenges in the context of the growing relevance of outer space. It reviews the international regulatory framework, highlighting the 1967 Space Treaty, and explores the implications of competition between space powers such as the United States (US) and China. The study makes a historical review of Argentine aerospace policies, from the allocation of orbital positions to the creation of Empresa Argentina de Soluciones Satelitales S.A. (ARSAT), highlighting the importance of technological autonomy and international cooperation for the development of the sector. It is argued that aerospace activity represents a crucial instrument to strengthen the country’s defense, national security and power projection. Keywords: Argentine aerospace policy, outer space, sovereignty, ARSAT, CONAE, Argentine Aerospace Agency (CONAE)
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Argentine aerospace policy
  topic: keywords
subject: outer space
  topic: keywords
subject: sovereignty
  topic: keywords
subject: ARSAT
  topic: keywords
subject: CONAE
  topic: keywords
subject: Argentine Aerospace Agency (CONAE)
  topic: keywords
creator: Leal Leal
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-29
publication date: 2025-04-29
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.79

Generative Artificial Intelligence: A Prospective Analysis of its Implications for Security and Defense
type: item
description: Humanity is currently experiencing the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which represents a profound break with the past. While previous revolutions were manifested in intellectual, economic, technological and, in some cases, political and social fields, this new stage is distinguished by the accelerated, exponential and convergent deployment of disruptive technologies. The first 25 years of the 21st century have seen what Fareed Zakaria calls “the age of revolutions,” characterized by profound transformations in politics, culture, identity and geopolitics, driven by a digital environment that has duplicated the advances of the past 250 years. It is essential to understand the physical and psychological effects of these changes, which generate both positive and negative consequences for society. Among the most relevant innovations are generative artificial intelligence (GAI) and quantum computing, which constitute, on the one hand, an existential challenge and, on the other, an opportunity for progress in various fields of knowledge. In particular, AGI stands as a key element in the military and strategic domain, transforming decision making and conflict management, while introducing unprecedented risks in terms of cybersecurity, disinformation and the arms race. The lack of balance between technological progress and human oversight could seriously affect global stability. Finally, this article analyzes AGI from a prospective perspective, assessing the threats, challenges and opportunities it poses in the field of security and defense, both in the present and in the near future.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Generative artificial intelligence (GAI)
  topic: keywords
subject: security and defense
  topic: keywords
subject: cybersecurity
  topic: keywords
subject: Fourth Industrial Revolution (4RI)
  topic: keywords
subject: threats and opportunities
  topic: keywords
creator: Saavedra Saavedra
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-29
publication date: 2025-04-29
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.78

Geopolitical Prospects in Syria After the Fall of Bashar al-Assad
type: item
description: The collapse of the Bashar al-Assad regime in December 2024 marked a turning point in Syria’s geopolitical landscape. The fall of the Baathist government generated a power vacuum that led to a strategic reconfiguration of the country, with national and international actors vying for influence. This article analyzes the military and political dynamics following Assad’s departure, with an emphasis on territorial fragmentation, the activity of insurgent groups such as Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham and the Tiger Forces, as well as the role of powers such as Russia, the United States (US), Iran and Turkey. In addition, it examines the political, military and economic challenges of the transitional government, the impact of Assad’s exile in Moscow and the possibility of Syria being divided into zones of control under different spheres of influence. From this context, possible future scenarios and their implications for regional and global stability are assessed.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Syria
  topic: keywords
subject: Bashar al-Assad
  topic: keywords
subject: geopolitics
  topic: keywords
subject: political transition
  topic: keywords
subject: insurgency
  topic: keywords
subject: international actors
  topic: keywords
subject: post-conflict reconstruction
  topic: keywords
creator: Mariano López de Miguel
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-29
publication date: 2025-04-29
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.77

La Rinconada: Zone of Threats and Challenges to National Security
type: item
description: This article comprehensively analyzes the threats to national security in La Rinconada, Puno, focusing on organized crime, informal and illegal mining, environmental contamination and the public health crisis. In this region, various criminal organizations operate, dedicated to gold trafficking, smuggling and transnational crime, consolidating criminal structures with access to weapons and illicit financing. Their territorial control, based on violence and corruption, not only weakens state authority, but also exploits mine workers and monopolizes the illegal trade in inputs. Moreover, its actions sustain a parallel clandestine economy that finances illicit activities at the national and international levels. In this context, the objective is to understand how the lack of state intervention and the interests of certain groups have allowed this region to become a nucleus of illicit activities that compromise the stability and development of the country. In order to address this problem, it is essential to make the political class, institutions and society as a whole aware of the urgency of generating and implementing a comprehensive national security strategy. This should be capable of dismantling criminal networks and eliminating the links of certain actors with illegal mining, which would allow for a sustainable economic, social and environmental recovery. The methodology employed is based on a qualitative research analysis of phenomenological character that includes visits and interviews in the area, as well as the review of socioeconomic and environmental studies with national and international sources. This leads to the main conclusion that, without comprehensive and sustained state intervention, La Rinconada will consolidate as a stronghold of Transnational Organized Crime (TOC), with direct repercussions on national security and governance of the country. Consequently, to avoid this scenario, it is imperative to articulate a strategy that combines security mea…
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: national security
  topic: keywords
subject: TOC
  topic: keywords
subject: illegal mining
  topic: keywords
subject: violence
  topic: keywords
subject: environmental contamination
  topic: keywords
subject: governance
  topic: keywords
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
creator: Juan Carlos Liendo O´Connor
creator: Diana Selene Rosell Claudet
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-05-07
publication date: 2025-05-07
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.76

The Armed Forces in the control of internal order and in support of the Peruvian National Police for its reestablishment
type: item
description: The increase of social conflict in Peru has prompted political decisions on the possible participation of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces), particularly the Peruvian Army (EP), in complex scenarios. It should be noted that there is a legal framework, Legislative Decree Nº 1095, which regulates such intervention through the declaration of a State of Emergency. However, regulatory gaps are identified related to the nature of the support to the National Police of Peru (PNP) and the specific tasks performed during the Emergency Regime contemplated in Article 137 of the Political Constitution of Peru (CPP). In this context, a theoretical review of the intervention of the Armed Forces in the control and reestablishment of internal order is carried out, based on a legal and conceptual analysis of current regulations. Likewise, key differences are established between Critical National Assets (CNA), strategic facilities, essential resources and Essential Public Services (SSPPEE), with the aim of proposing alternatives for a more effective participation in scenarios that could be recurrent. The proposal seeks to guarantee inter-institutional coordination between the Armed Forces, the PNP and other entities, optimizing military capabilities such as logistics, protection and technical support to face exceptional situations.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Internal Order
  topic: keywords
subject: Support to the PNP
  topic: keywords
subject: Protection of Critical National Assets
  topic: keywords
subject: PNP overrun
  topic: keywords
subject: Armed Forces participation
  topic: keywords
subject: key resources
  topic: keywords
subject: strategic installations
  topic: keywords
creator: Ddedwin Galindo Gonzales
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-04-29
publication date: 2025-04-29
doi: 10.56221/spt.v4i1.75

Ideological Radicalization, Organized Crime and National Security: The Intervention of the Armed Forces
type: item
description: This article analyzes the impact of ideological radicalization and its convergence with Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) on national security in Peru. Through a descriptive and analytical methodology, it examines the areas most affected by these phenomena, assessing how radical groups and organized crime affect governance and compromise state control over key territories. It concludes that this convergence increases threats to internal security, requiring strategic intervention by the state. Although internal security is primarily a police task, the intervention of the Armed Forces (Armed Forces) is essential in situations where the magnitude of the threat exceeds police capabilities. Finally, the need for a comprehensive strategy that combines security efforts with socioeconomic development to mitigate the effects of radicalization, as well as to guarantee and strengthen the country’s long-term stability, especially in the most vulnerable regions, is highlighted.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: Ideological radicalization
  topic: keywords
subject: State
  topic: keywords
subject: TOC
  topic: keywords
subject: National Security
  topic: keywords
subject: Armed Forces
  topic: keywords
subject: socioeconomic development
  topic: keywords
subject: governance
  topic: keywords
creator: Miguel Ángel Gonzales Bojórquez
creator: Oscar Luis Calle Pérez
creator: Rolando Enrique Campos Hashimoto
creator: Manolo Eduardo Villagra
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-12
publication date: 2025-02-12
starting page: 227
ending page: 241
doi: 10.56221/spt.v3i4.74

Evolution of Peruvian National Security and Defense in Interaction with the United States
type: item
description: The objective is to analyze the incidence of the relationship between Peru and the United States (U.S.) in National Security and Defense. Peruvian policies in these areas are discussed with the U.S. The methodology used comes from the social sciences, adopting a long-term perspective. It is argued that, in order to develop national interests and objectives, managers and members of the political community must consider the geopolitics of international relations, as well as make an adequate assessment of the presence of hegemonic states and the decision margins that countries with less strategic weight can develop. From an academic perspective, it is important to contribute to timely decision-making through research and exposure to public opinion.
subject: Artículos
  topic: section
subject: National security
  topic: keywords
subject: national defense
  topic: keywords
subject: Peru
  topic: keywords
subject: United States
  topic: keywords
subject: decision making
  topic: keywords
creator: Ernesto G. Morales Erroch
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Security and Land Power Journal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-12
publication date: 2025-02-12
starting page: 165
ending page: 186
doi: 10.56221/spt.v3i4.73